The Bar Kokhba Revolt, also known as the Second Jewish-Roman War or the Third Jewish-Roman War, was a major Jewish uprising against the Roman Empire that took place from 132 to 135 or 136 CE in the province of Judaea. It was the last of the major Jewish revolts against Roman rule and marked a significant turning point in Jewish history, leading to widespread devastation and the further dispersal of the Jewish population.
The revolt was precipitated by a series of Roman policies under Emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138 CE). Following the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem during the First Jewish-Roman War in 70 CE, tensions between Jews and Romans persisted. Hadrian's decisions exacerbated these frictions: he planned to rebuild Jerusalem as a Roman colony named Aelia Capitolina, dedicated to the god Jupiter, which included constructing a temple to Jupiter on the site of the ruined Jewish Temple Mount. Additionally, Hadrian issued edicts banning key Jewish practices, such as circumcision (referred to as brit milah), the observance of Shabbat, and the study of the Torah. These measures were seen as direct assaults on Jewish religious and cultural identity.
Scholars debate the exact sequence of events, but it is generally accepted that the revolt began as sporadic resistance in rural areas of Judaea, possibly triggered by the enforcement of these policies around 130 CE. The Jewish population, still recovering from previous conflicts, viewed the Roman actions as intolerable oppression, fueling messianic expectations.
The revolt was led by Simon bar Kokhba (also spelled Bar Kokhba or Ben Kosiba), a charismatic military leader from Modiin. His name, meaning "Son of the Star" in Aramaic, was a messianic title derived from Numbers 24:17 ("A star shall come out of Jacob"). Prominent Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva proclaimed him the Messiah and king of Israel, dubbing him "Bar Kokhba" to signify his fulfillment of prophecy. Akiva's support mobilized religious fervor, portraying the revolt as a divine redemption.
Bar Kokhba organized a sophisticated administration, minting coins inscribed with phrases like "Freedom of Israel" and "For the Redemption of Jerusalem." He established a short-lived independent Jewish state, with governance structures including tax collection and a judiciary. Letters attributed to Bar Kokhba, discovered in the Cave of Letters near the Dead Sea, reveal his strategic commands and strict discipline, such as orders to maintain Sabbath observance even during warfare.
The initial phase of the revolt (132 CE) saw rapid Jewish successes. Bar Kokhba's forces, estimated at 200,000 fighters, employed guerrilla tactics, leveraging the rugged terrain of Judaea. They captured Jerusalem, expelling Roman garrisons, and controlled much of the province, including the coastal plain and parts of Galilee. Fortified hideouts, known as chametz (refuge caves), were used for storage and refuge; archaeological finds include weapons, coins, and documents from these sites.
The Romans, initially caught off guard, responded with overwhelming force. Hadrian dispatched general Sextus Julius Severus from Britain, along with legions from across the empire—up to 12 legions, totaling around 80,000–120,000 troops. This was one of the largest Roman military mobilizations since the Dacian Wars. The conflict shifted to a brutal siege warfare phase by 133–134 CE, with Romans systematically isolating Jewish strongholds.
Key battles included the siege of Betar (Bethar), Bar Kokhba's final headquarters southwest of Jerusalem. In 135 CE, after a prolonged siege, Roman forces breached the defenses, killing Bar Kokhba and his remaining followers. Rabbi Akiva was captured and executed in Caesarea, flayed alive for refusing to renounce his faith.
The revolt resulted in catastrophic losses. Roman historian Cassius Dio reported 580,000 Jewish men killed in battle, with countless more dying from famine, disease, and suicide. Entire villages were destroyed, and Judaea was left desolate; Dio described the land as "almost depopulated." Survivors were enslaved, sold in markets as far as Gaza, or forbidden from entering Jerusalem except on Tisha B'Av.
Hadrian suppressed Jewish national symbols: the province was renamed Syria Palaestina to erase Jewish ties to the land, and Jerusalem became Aelia Capitolina. Circumcision was outlawed empire-wide temporarily, and the Sanhedrin was disbanded. The revolt intensified the Jewish Diaspora, with many fleeing to Galilee, Babylon, and beyond, shifting the center of Jewish life northward.
Archaeological evidence, including coins, letters, and ostraca from the Judean Desert caves (discovered in the 1950s–1960s by expeditions led by Yigael Yadin), corroborates the historical accounts. These artifacts show a vibrant, organized resistance but also internal strains, such as disputes over supplies.
The Bar Kokhba Revolt is remembered in Jewish tradition ambivalently. Initially hailed as heroic, later rabbinic sources, like the Talmud, criticized Bar Kokhba as a false messiah who brought ruin, referring to him as "Bar Koziba" (Son of the Lie). It symbolizes both unyielding Jewish resistance and the perils of messianic zealotry.
Sources consulted include: Wikipedia: Bar Kokhba Revolt, Britannica: Bar Kokhba Revolt, Jewish Virtual Library: The Bar-Kokhba Revolt, and World History Encyclopedia: The Bar-Kochba Revolt.