Ecumenical Councils
Ecumenical Councils are significant gatherings of Christianity leaders, bishops, and other ecclesiastical figures to discuss and settle matters of church doctrine, discipline, and administration. These councils are considered authoritative by many Christian denominations, particularly within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and some other Christian traditions.
History and Development
- First Council of Nicaea (325 AD): This was the first ecumenical council, convened by Constantine the Great to address the Arian Controversy. It resulted in the formulation of the Nicene Creed, which established the divinity of Jesus Christ.
- First Council of Constantinople (381 AD): This council expanded the Nicene Creed, confirming the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and thus completing what is now known as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.
- Council of Ephesus (431 AD): Discussed the nature of Christ, particularly in response to the teachings of Nestorius, leading to the condemnation of Nestorianism.
- Council of Chalcedon (451 AD): Defined the Chalcedonian Definition, which describes the two natures of Christ as being united in one person without confusion, change, division, or separation.
- Second Council of Constantinople (553 AD): Further clarified the decisions of Chalcedon, condemning the Three Chapters and reaffirming the orthodox position on Christology.
- Third Council of Constantinople (680-681 AD): Dealt with the Monothelite Controversy, affirming that Christ had two wills (divine and human).
- Second Council of Nicaea (787 AD): Restored the veneration of icons after the iconoclastic controversy, condemning Iconoclasm.
- Fourth Council of Constantinople (869-870 AD): Recognized by the Catholic Church but not by the Eastern Orthodox, dealt with issues of the Photian Schism.
Role and Authority
The decisions made in Ecumenical Councils are considered binding in the churches that accept them. These councils have:
- Defined dogmatic formulas regarding the Trinity, the nature of Christ, and other core theological issues.
- Established church discipline, including the role of bishops and the structure of ecclesiastical governance.
- Responded to heresies and schisms, aiming to preserve the unity of the church.
Modern Ecumenical Councils
In the modern era, the Catholic Church has held additional councils:
- First Vatican Council (1869-1870): Defined the dogma of Papal Infallibility and the nature of the Primacy of the Bishop of Rome.
- Second Vatican Council (1962-1965): Focused on aggiornamento or updating the church to engage more effectively with the modern world, leading to significant liturgical, ecumenical, and social reforms.
Controversy and Acceptance
Not all Christian denominations recognize all Ecumenical Councils. For instance:
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